3.1 Physical geography
Water and carbon cycles
This section of our specification focuses on the major stores of water and carbon at or near the Earth’s surface and the dynamic cyclical relationships associated with them. These are major elements in the natural environment and understanding them is fundamental to many aspects of physical geography.
This section specifies a systems approach to the study of water and carbon cycles. The content invites students to contemplate the magnitude and significance of the cycles at a variety of scales, their relevance to wider geography and their central importance for human populations. The section offers the opportunity to exercise and develop geographical skills, including observation, measurement and geospatial mapping skills, together with data manipulation and statistical skills, including those associated with and arising from fieldwork.
Water and carbon cycles as natural systems
Systems in physical geography: systems concepts and their application to the water and carbon cycles inputs – outputs, energy, stores/components, flows/transfers, positive/negative feedback, dynamic equilibrium.
The water cycle
Global distribution and size of major stores of water – lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere and atmosphere.
Processes driving change in the magnitude of these stores over time and in space, including flows and transfers: evaporation, condensation, cloud formation, causes of precipitation and cryospheric processes, at hill slope, drainage basin and global scales with reference to varying timescales involved.
Drainage basins as open systems – inputs and outputs, to include precipitation, evapo-transpiration and runoff; stores and flows, to include: interception, surface, soil water, groundwater and channel storage; stemflow, infiltration overland flow and channel flow. Concept of water balance.
Runoff variation and the flood hydrograph.
Changes in the water cycle over time to include natural variation including storm events, seasonal changes and human impact including farming practices, land use change and water abstraction.
The carbon cycle
Global distribution, and size of major stores of carbon – lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere biosphere, atmosphere.
Factors driving change in the magnitude of these stores, over time and in space, including flows and transfers at plant, sere and continental scales. Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion, carbon sequestration in oceans and sediments, weathering.
Changes in the carbon cycle over time, to include natural variation (including wild fires, volcanic activity) and human impact (including hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning, farming practices, deforestation, land use changes).
The carbon budget and the impact of the carbon cycle upon land, ocean and atmosphere, including global climate.
Water, carbon, climate and life on Earth
The key role of the carbon and water stores and cycles in supporting life on Earth with particular reference to climate. The relationship between the water cycle and carbon cycle in the atmosphere. The role of feedbacks within and between cycles and their link to climate change and implications for life of Earth.
Human interventions in the carbon cycle designed to influence carbon transfers and mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Quantitative and qualitative skills
Students must engage with a range of quantitative and relevant qualitative skills, within the theme water and carbon cycles. Students must specifically understand simple mass balance, unit conversions and the analysis and presentation of field data.
Case studies
Case study of a tropical rainforest setting to illustrate and analyse key themes in water and carbon cycles and their relationship to environmental change and human activity.
Case study of a river catchment(s) at a local scale to illustrate and analyse the key themes above, engage with field data and consider the impact of precipitation upon drainage basin stores and transfers and implications for sustainable water supply and/or flooding.
Coastal systems and landscapes
This section of our specification focuses on coastal zones, which are dynamic environments in which landscapes develop by the interaction of winds, waves, currents and terrestrial and marine sediments. The operation and outcomes of fundamental geomorphological processes and their association with distinctive landscapes are readily observable. In common with water and carbon cycles, a systems approach to study is specified.
Student engagement with subject content fosters an informed appreciation of the beauty and diversity of coasts and their importance as human habitats. The section offers the opportunity to exercise and develop observation skills, measurement and geospatial mapping skills, together with data manipulation and statistical skills, including those associated with and arising from fieldwork.
Coasts as natural systems
Systems in physical geography: systems concepts and their application to the development of coastal landscapes – inputs, outputs, energy, stores/components, flows/transfers, positive/negative feedback, dynamic equilibrium. The concepts of landform and landscape and how related landforms combine to form characteristic landscapes.
Systems and processes
Sources of energy in coastal environments: winds, waves (constructive and destructive), currents and tides. Low energy and high energy coasts.
Sediment sources, cells and budgets.
Geomorphological processes: weathering, mass movement, erosion, transportation and deposition.
Distinctively coastal processes: marine: erosion – hydraulic action, wave quarrying, corrasion/abrasion, cavitation, solution, attrition; transportation: traction, suspension (longshore/littoral drift) and deposition; sub-aerial weathering, mass movement and runoff.
Coastal landscape development
This content must include study of a variety of landscapes from beyond the UK but may also include UK examples.
Origin and development of landforms and landscapes of coastal erosion: cliffs and wave cut platforms, cliff profile features including caves, arches and stacks; factors and processes in their development.
Origin and development of landforms and landscapes of coastal deposition. Beaches, simple and compound spits, tombolos, offshore bars, barrier beaches and islands and sand dunes; factors and processes in their development.
Estuarine mudflat/saltmarsh environments and associated landscapes; factors and processes in their development.
Eustatic, isostatic and tectonic sea level change: major changes in sea level in the last 10,000 years.
Coastlines of emergence and submergence. Origin and development of associated landforms: raised beaches, marine platforms; rias, fjords, Dalmatian coasts.
Recent and predicted climatic change and potential impact on coasts.
The relationship between process, time, landforms and landscapes in coastal settings.
Coastal management
Human intervention in coastal landscapes. Traditional approaches to coastal flood and erosion risk: hard and soft engineering. Sustainable approaches to coastal flood risk and coastal erosion management: shoreline management/integrated coastal zone management.
Quantitative and qualitative skills
Students must engage with a range of quantitative and relevant qualitative skills, within the theme landscape systems. These should include observation skills, measurement and geospatial mapping skills, and data manipulation and statistical skills applied to field measurement.
Case studies
Case study(ies) of coastal environment(s) at a local scale to illustrate and analyse fundamental coastal processes, their landscape outcomes as set out above and engage with field data and challenges represented in their sustainable management.
Case study of a contrasting coastal landscape beyond the United Kingdom (UK) to illustrate and analyse how it present risks and opportunities for human occupation and development, and evaluate human responses of resilience, mitigation and adaptation.
Glacial systems and landscapes
This section of our specification focuses on glaciated landscapes. These are dynamic environments in which landscapes continue to develop through contemporary processes but which mainly reflect former climatic conditions associated with the Pleistocene era. The operation and outcomes of fundamental geomorphological processes and their association with distinctive landscapes are readily observable. In common with water and carbon cycles, a systems approach to study is specified.
Student engagement with subject content fosters an informed appreciation of the beauty and diversity of glaciated regions and the challenges they present for human habitation. The section offers the opportunity to exercise and develop observation skills, measurement and geospatial mapping skills, together with data manipulation and statistical skills, including those associated with and arising from fieldwork.
Glaciers as natural systems
Systems in physical geography: systems concepts and their application to the development of glaciated landscapes – inputs, outputs, energy, stores/components, flows/transfers, positive/negative feedback, dynamic equilibrium. The concepts of landform and landscape and how related landforms combine to form characteristic landscapes.
The nature and distribution of cold environments
The global distribution of cold environments.
Physical characteristics of cold environments. Climate, soils and vegetation (and their interaction).
The global distribution of past and present cold environments (polar, alpine, glacial and periglacial) and of areas affected by the Pleistocene glaciations.
Systems and processes
Glacial systems including glacial budgets.
Ablation and accumulation – historical patterns of ice advance and retreat.
Warm and cold based glaciers: characteristics and development.
Geomorphological processes – weathering: frost action, nivation; ice movement: internal deformation, rotational, compressional, extensional and basal sliding; erosion: plucking, abrasion; transportation and deposition.
Fluvioglacial processes: meltwater erosion, transportation and deposition.
Periglacial features and processes: permafrost, active layer, mass movement.
Glaciated landscape development
This content must include study of a variety of landscapes from beyond the UK and may also include UK examples.
Origin and development of glaciated landscapes.
Erosional and depositional landforms: corries, arêtes, glacial troughs, hanging valleys, truncated spurs, roches moutonnées. Characteristic glaciated landscapes.
Origin and development of landforms and landscapes of glacial deposition: drumlins, erratics, moraines, till plains. Characteristic glaciated landscapes.
Fluvioglacial landforms of erosion and deposition: meltwater channels, kames, eskers, outwash plains. Characteristic fluvioglacial landscapes.
Periglacial landforms: patterned ground, ice wedges, pingos, blockfields, solifluction lobes, terracettes, thermokarst. Characteristic periglacial landscapes.
The relationship between process, time, landforms and landscapes in glaciated settings: characteristic glaciated and periglacial landscapes.
Human impacts on cold environments
Concept of environmental fragility. Human impacts on fragile cold environments over time and at a variety of scales. Recent and prospective impact of climate change. Management of cold environments at present and in alternative possible futures.
Quantitative and qualitative skills
Students must engage with a range of quantitative and relevant qualitative skills, within the theme landscape systems. These should include observation skills, measurement and geospatial mapping skills and data manipulation and statistical skills applied to field measurement.
Case studies
Case study(ies) of glaciated environment(s) at a local scale to illustrate and analyse fundamental glacial processes, their landscape outcomes as set out above and engage with field data.
Case study of a contrasting glaciated landscape beyond the UK to illustrate and analyse how it presents challenges and opportunities for human occupation and development and evaluate human responses of resilience, mitigation and adaptation.
