Appendix A: Working scientifically
Scientific research is a fundamental part of Environmental Science and good research skills are needed to collect representative data so that reliable conclusions can be formulated.
Students must be given the opportunity to carry out investigative/practical activities which cover the following requirements. These activities should be carried out within clear environmental contexts. Opportunities for developing the required practical skills are signposted within the subject content. Opportunities should also be taken to incorporate the required mathematical skills.
Students must undertake fieldwork which meets the minimum requirement of 4 days of fieldwork for A-level. If a mixture of fieldwork and laboratory-based activities is chosen then the equivalent minimum requirement would be 2 days of fieldwork plus 12 laboratory-based activities.
Schools and colleges are required to provide a practical work statement that confirms each student has been given the opportunity to fulfil this requirement. Schools and colleges must provide the practical work statement by 15 May in the year of entry. Any failure to provide this statement in a timely manner will be treated as malpractice or maladministration (under Ofqual's General Condition A8 (Malpractice and maladministration)).
Assessment of the knowledge and understanding of the practical skills in the A-level specification will be by written exams only. Overall, at least 15% of the marks for A-level Environmental Science qualification will require the assessment of practical skills.
Students must undertake experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range of environmental contexts. They must also know how to safely and correctly use a range of practical equipment and materials.
Students must carry out practical activities using the best contemporary practices for risk assessment and safe working in the laboratory and during fieldwork.
Investigative/practical activities undertaken throughout the course should enable students to develop the following skills:
Practical skills for assessment in the written papers
| Practical skill number | Description of skill |
|---|---|
| PS 1.1 | solve problems set in practical contexts |
| PS 1.2 | analyse and evaluate existing scientific knowledge |
| PS 1.3 | apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts |
| PS 1.4 | plan scientific investigations and apply investigative approaches and methods to practical work. |
| Practical skill number | Description of skill |
|---|---|
| PS 2.1 | comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods |
| PS 2.2 | evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement uncertainties and errors |
| PS 2.3 | identify variables including those that must be controlled |
| PS 2.4 | collect and present information and data in a scientific way. |
| Practical skill number | Description of skill |
|---|---|
| PS 3.1 | plot and interpret graphs |
| PS 3.2 | process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified in the mathematical requirements |
| PS 3.3 | consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data. |
| Practical skill number | Decription of skill |
|---|---|
| PS 4.1 |
Know and understand how to use experimental and practical instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and understanding included in the specification, including:
|
These skills can be developed through the following methodologies and sampling techniques and opportunities are signposted throughout the subject content.
Required practical activities
Students must develop a knowledge and understanding of all the scientific methodologies and sampling techniques included in Research methods.
In addition to this, they must have first-hand experience of the methodologies Me1, Me2, Me3, Me4, Me5, Me6 and all the practical sampling techniques included in ST1, ST2, ST3, ST4, ST5 and ST6. These can be carried out through a range of practical activities based in the laboratory or during fieldwork. This practical work will build upon the knowledge and understanding gained from Research methods.
Methodologies
These are the underlying principles which are essential in the planning of good scientific research. It is important that students understand how to plan environmental studies as well as how to carry out the specific techniques.
Students should have an understanding of all the methodologies covered in Research methods, which would always be included in the planning of any environmental study. In addition, suitable opportunities must be provided to allow students to investigate all of these methodologies in detail: Me1, Me2, Me3, Me4, Me5 and Me6. Students should develop an understanding of how these methodologies enable the planning of better scientific research so they can evaluate their impact on the reliability of the data collected.
To gain the greatest education benefit from these activities, the investigations should be planned within an environmental context where the results would inform environmental decision-making, eg the effect of abiotic factors on plant distribution in a nature reserve, the control of invasive plant species, the effect of field cultivation on river water or nutrient concentration or the effect of different farming techniques on soil organic matter content.
It is important that students understand that the methodologies for which they develop skills can be applied to any environmental research project, including those in locations they cannot visit and those which require equipment which they do not have. It is still possible to apply their planning skills in these theoretical contexts. This will help them develop their knowledge throughout the specification within the context of independent thinking and scientific research.
| Methodology skill number | Description of skill |
|---|---|
| Me 1 | Sample location – random sampling, where there is no directional difference in sample results or there is no environmental gradient. |
| Me 2 | Sample location – systematic sampling, where there is an environmental gradient or fixed sample intervals are appropriate. |
| Me 3 | Number of samples – an assessment of the number of samples needed, as influenced by the variability between samples. |
| Me 4 | Sample size – an assessment of how large each sample should be, as influenced by the homogeneity of the subject matter. |
| Me 5 | Sample timing – when a temporal variable may affect the reliability of results, eg weather-related, seasonal or diurnal changes. |
| Me 6 |
Standard deviation – an analysis of the variability of results by calculating the Standard Deviations of mean values. An assessment of the statistical significance of results by selecting and carrying out an appropriate statistical test. |
Sampling techniques
These are the techniques that should be carried out to develop a knowledge and understanding of the practical methods used to collect representative, reliable data about the environment.
The first-hand experience of practical techniques should build on the theory of the use of all of the techniques, as covered in Research methods.
Students should gain first-hand experience of the sampling techniques included in ST1, ST2, ST3, ST4, ST5 and ST6. The techniques should be carried out within environmental context that highlight how the data gained can be used to reach conclusions that inform future decision making.
| Sampling technique skill number | Description of skill |
|---|---|
| ST 1 |
Measurement of abiotic factors:
|
| ST 2 |
The use of quadrats to measure biotic factors: Population size, species richness, species distribution, biodiversity
|
| ST 3 |
Measurement of edaphic factors Soil texture:
Soil water content Soil organic matter content Soil pH Soil bulk density |
| ST 4 |
The use of methods to measure biotic factors related to animal taxa on the soil surface and in soil: Population size, species richness, species distribution, biodiversity
|
| ST 5 |
The use of methods to measure biotic factors related to animal taxa on foliage and flying animals: Population size, species richness, species distribution, biodiversity
|
| ST 6 |
The use of aquatic sampling methods to measure biotic factors: Population size, species richness, species distribution, biodiversity
|
There is no prescribed list of compulsory investigations that must be carried out. Centres and teachers must choose appropriate practical activities that allow students to gain first-hand experience of the required methodologies and sampling techniques.
It is anticipated that the time devoted to practical activities would equate to two full days of fieldwork or one day of fieldwork plus six sessions of laboratory-based activities.
Practical activities should be carried out with the consideration of their environmental impacts and how these can be minimised. All activities should be planned and carried out to ensure the safety of the students and other people.
Scientific principles
Throughout the course, students must be given opportunities to develop the following skills and knowledge.
Use theories, models and ideas to develop scientific explanations of environmental processes
Students must be given opportunities to use theories, models and ideas to develop scientific explanations of environmental processes.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- the control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitats. Students should understand the processes in ecological succession that can inform conservation strategies
- global climate change: how interconnected natural systems cause environmental change
- the processes in the carbon cycle that are affected by human activities
- the processes in the nitrogen cycle that are affected by human activities
- factors that affect (pollutant) dispersal
- marine productivity: The role of nutrients in controlling biological productivity.
Use knowledge and understanding to pose questions, define scientific problems, present scientific arguments and scientific ideas related to the environment
Students must be given opportunities to use knowledge and understanding to pose questions, define scientific problems, present scientific arguments and scientific ideas related to the environment.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- setting conservation priorities. Students could evaluate the information available to decide which taxa and habitats should be conserved
- difficulties monitoring and predicting climate change
- ozone depletion. Collection, analysis and interpretation of data, an evaluation of data collection methods available and the reliability of data produced
- reserves and resource. Students could consider how data from exploration and the development of new exploratory and extraction techniques affect estimates of mineral reserves
- strategies to secure future energy supplies. Students should analyse and evaluate key issues and quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each resource
- developments in energy storage technologies. Students could analyse the impact of new storage technologies on the use of renewable energy resources
- Critical Pathway Analysis. Students could consider how an understanding of environmental pollutant pathways and the information that must be collected, can help prevent pollution problems
- Critical Group Monitoring. Students could analyse the information needed to predict the members of the public most at risk of pollution impacts
- the extent to which aquaculture can replace fishing.
Use of appropriate methodology, including information and communication technology (ICT), to answer scientific questions and solve scientific problems
Students must be given opportunities to use ICT to access environmental information and data, and to manipulate data.
Suitable opportunities for the use of ICT include:
- data on IUCN Red List species
- interactive maps on protected areas
- IWC catch quotas
- current atmospheric CO2 levels
- tracking satellites that monitor the cryosphere
- climate modelling
- carbon footprint calculations
- tracking satellites that research mineral deposits
- current data on wind velocities and windfarm output
- current data on wave height and direction
- locations of current and planned renewable energy locations
- changes in electricity supply and sources
- monitoring atmospheric pollution in selected locations
- monitoring noise levels around airports
- monitoring road traffic noise
- research methods:
- use of statistical analysis software
- tracking wildlife.
Undertake experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range of environmental contexts
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to undertake experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in a range of environmental contexts.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- research methods
- sampling techniques.
Analyse and interpret quantitative and qualitative data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal relationships
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to analyse and interpret quantitative and qualitative data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal relationships.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- the importance of ecological monitoring in conservation planning
- ozone depletion: collection, analysis and interpretation of data, an evaluation of data collection methods available and the reliability of data produced
- evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layer
- reserves and resource
- Lasky’s principle
- the Universal Soil Loss Equation. Students could use data to estimate soil erosion rates in different agricultural scenarios
- features of energy resources. Quantitative data should be used to compare different energy resources and evaluate the potential for energy resources in the future
- strategies to secure future energy supplies. Students should analyse and evaluate key issues and quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each energy resources
- the methods of estimating fish populations and Maximum Sustainable Yield. The relationship between biomass, recruitment, growth, mortality and catch
- research methods.
Evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve conflicting evidence to make judgements and reach conclusions and develop and refine practical design and procedures
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to:
- evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve conflicting evidence to:
- make judgements and reach conclusions
- develop and refine practical design and procedures.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- regulation of sustainable exploitation. Students could analyse data on populations and exploitation rates to assess the effectiveness of the strategies
- management and conservation of habitats. Students could evaluate secondary data to assess the effectiveness of habitat conservation methods
- how population control and the management of desired and undesired species affects the conservation of biodiversity
- difficulties monitoring and predicting climate change
- ozone depletion: collection, analysis and interpretation of data, an evaluation of data collection methods available and the reliability of data produced
- the hydrosphere: analysis and evaluation of strategies for sustainable management
- strategies to secure future energy supplies. Students could analyse and evaluate key issues and quantitative data to evaluate potential future contribution of each energy resource
- ionising radiation: the use of risk:benefit analysis
- strategies to increase the sustainability of agriculture: Permaculture, use of natural processes, integrated pest control
- research methods and working scientifically. Students could apply their knowledge of scientific methodologies and sampling techniques to plan studies to collect more data and to critically analyse methods of data collection in scenarios throughout the specification.
Know that scientific knowledge and understanding of the environment develops over time
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to develop and understand that scientific knowledge and understanding of the environment develops over time.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- management and conservation of habitats
- changes in concentrations of greenhouse gases and the impact of global climate change
- changes in ozone depletion
- changes in mineral reserves
- strategies to secure future mineral supplies
- strategies to secure future energy supplies
- developments in energy storage technologies
- new energy conservation technologies
- the use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologies
- strategies to increase the sustainability of agriculture.
Communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology
Students should understand and use the subject technical terminology used throughout the specification.
Consider applications and implications of environmental science and evaluate their associated benefits and risks
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider applications and implications of environmental science and evaluate their associated benefits and risks.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- the importance of the conservation of biodiversity
- the advantages and disadvantages of the methods used in sustainable management of the carbon cycle
- strategies to secure future energy supplies
- selection and control technologies: to reduce production, reduce release and mitigate damage caused
- the benefits and costs of pollution control including ALARA and BATNEEC
- manipulations of food species
- the circular economy.
Consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- human influence on biodiversity
- regulation of sustainable exploitation
- management and conservation of habitats
- global climate change
- the impact of unsustainable exploitation of the hydrosphere
- the environmental impacts of soil erosion
- the sustainability of current energy resource exploitation
- environmental impacts of fishing
- sustainability.
Evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring integrity
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to consider the way that peer review within the scientific community is used to validate new knowledge and ensure its integrity.
Suitable opportunities for this include:
- species population monitoring for:
- IUCN Red List species categorisation
- CITES trade control categorisation
- setting quotas for IWC, EU CFP and ITTO
- monitoring rates of tropical rainforest loss
- monitoring rates of coral reef bleaching
- difficulties monitoring and predicting climate change. Students should understand the limitations in the available data when attempting to predict future natural and anthropogenic climate change. They should be able to evaluate the reliability of existing information and discuss the methods that are used to fill gaps in current knowledge including remote sensing
- the Rowland-Molina hypothesis
- monitoring ozone depletion
- evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layer
- analysis and evaluation of the strategies for sustainable management of the hydrosphere
- strategies to secure future mineral supplies
- strategies to secure future energy supplies
- risk:benefit analysis for the uses of ionising radiation
- comparison of the advantages/disadvantages of the use of different pesticide groups
- manipulation of food species, particularly GM crops
- the extent to which aquaculture can replace fishing.
Evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making
Students must be given opportunities throughout the course to evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making.
Suitable opportunities for this include:- categorisation of species for CITES appendices
- management and conservation of habitats
- the importance of ecological monitoring in conservation planning
- the control of ecological succession in conserving plagioclimax habitats. Students should understand the processes in ecological succession that can inform conservation strategies
- how population control and the management of desired and undesired species affects the conservation of biodiversity. Students should understand r- and k- selection strategies and how these affect the ease with which species can be over-exploited
- evaluation of the effectiveness of the methods used to restore the ozone layer
- impact of unsustainable exploitation of the hydrosphere. Students should be able to use the technical terminology related to the hydrological cycle to discuss anthropogenic changes and strategies that may allow sustainable exploitation
- strategies to secure future energy supplies. Students should analyse and evaluate key issues and quantitative data to evaluate the potential future contribution of each energy resource
- selection and control technologies. Students should understand the properties of pollutants and environmental features so they can analyse and evaluate the changes in human activities and strategies that can be used to minimise pollution
- the use of scientific knowledge to develop new pollution control technologies
- the methods of estimating fish populations and Maximum Sustainable Yield
- methods of reducing environmental impacts of fishing:
- catch quotas
- no-take zones
- minimum and maximum catch size
- the application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles.
